No doubt, many of the 11th class students of the Federal Board would be willing to catch such a page where a guide to every subject would be on their excess rather than a Google search Tab and a lot of Keywords to go with. Aamir Mursleen January 21, Edit this post. Last Updated: 21th Juanary Are you looking for Class 11th notes for the Federal Board for all subjects in one place?
Accompanying 45 this has been a substantial rise in support for pressure groups that target those multi- 46 national corporations in order to highlight their polices on. He also warns against the rise 8 of anti-scientism. John Vidal 13 reported that shareholders in Huntingdon Life Sciences, which tests on animals 14 for the pharmaceutical industry and has been the focus of much pressure group activity, 15 had been sent a letter by the British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection Reform 16 Group AVRG that warned them to sell their shares or face having their homes pick- eted.
One individual who refused had been the victim of a peaceful demonstration 18 outside his house. Companies are having to become more aware not only of their own 19 policies, but of those of other companies that they may invest in.
Few companies 27 had corporate strategies in place to deal with the problem, and tended to rely on media 28 publicity to get their message across rather than taking a strategic approach to the issues 29 raised by pressure groups Hamilton Michael Murphy notes the importance of cultural identity.
Whilst 36 huge trading blocs such as the European Union have been established, and trends towards 37 deregulation in the marketplace are apparent, there has also been a growth in national- 38 ism. This has manifested itself in the UK in devolution to the national assemblies in 39 Wales and Scotland. Greater access to information allows people to make 46 more informed choices. Lobbying can be either defensive, designed 14 to abolish or amend an existing law, or offensive, aimed at pushing the authorities to 15 create a law.
An example of offensive lobbying was the successful Snowdrop Campaign 16 by parents of children killed at Dunblane, which quickly forced a change in the regulations on private hand guns. The key to lobbying is to understand the legisla- 18 tive process, and how that of the UK and the different national assemblies operate 19 within the European Community.
Increasingly, competition on an international scale 20 means that it is necessary to take wide-ranging cultural and legislative practices into 21 account. For example, Shell found that its decision to dispose of Brent Spar in the 22 North Sea provoked a reaction from pressure groups across Europe. In the end, despite 23 the rationality of its argument, a well-orchestrated campaign caused the company to 24 change its policy. He also noted that groups are not equal in 28 wealth and while some can hire public relations consultants, others cannot.
The later a campaign begins, the fewer 36 choices are open. Miller Roche 23 names four common lobbying mistakes: 37 38 1 Contacts are no use unless you have a sound case.
They may 46 take on an in-house specialist, as is most likely in large organisations that need to 47 be constantly aware of issues and legislation. However, there have been calls for 5 regulation of this process see Chapter 5. The problem remains that many lobbyists are not members of any 13 of these professional associations and so cannot be governed by any of their rules. Bryceson still carries out 15 lobbying work on a pro bono basis for certain special interest groups he supports.
Where 16 does lobbying start — is it only when someone is paid to do it that regulation comes into play? This changed the way that lobbyists worked and shifted emphasis onto 24 government advisors. Parliament was also noticeably younger and contained more 25 women and ethnic MPs.
Relationships had to be formed between lobbyists and these 26 new MPs. By simply paying attention to an issue and 48 neglecting others, the media will affect public opinion. Over 90 per cent of answers are 8 written, and are a good way to bring a matter to the attention of Ministers and other 9 MPs.
Lobbyists may seek to persuade an MP to ask a question on behalf of a particu- 10 lar organisation or to support a particular cause. All questions and answers appear in 11 Hansard. Whitehall departments and the European Commission draft policy and 23 implement decisions formally made by Ministers and Commissioners.
Advisory 27 committees and task forces in the UK and Committees of Experts in the EC, made up 28 of outside specialists, may also act as consultation bodies. The European 43 Council consists of all heads of state and meets twice a year. The Council of Ministers 44 includes ministerial representatives of the member states, in proportion to their popu- 45 lations. The Presidency is held by member states in turn. These institutions are supported by 49 civil servants and other advisers.
The legislative process is mainly governed by the Council, the Commission which has the right to initiate proposals and the Parliament. Professional lobbyists would be 20 expected to know which element of the system to approach and how that element would 21 wish to be treated. By treating receivers of information as stakeholder publics, lobby- 22 ists can increase the likely success of their case. Due thought needs to be given to how 23 the system would receive the information and respond to it.
Miller also suggests that 24 the bulk of issues are settled by negotiation, rather than by a simple lobbying process. Some of the global organ- 33 isations have competing priorities. The World Bank places an emphasis on cash crops 34 like tobacco over subsistence farming, yet the World Health Organization discourages 35 tobacco use. The remit of the new body was still 40 to investigate and report on proposed mergers, but the emphasis shifted towards consid- 41 ering whether decisions would mean better services for consumers.
The chair of the 42 Commission Dr Derek Morris stated that the Commission would prioritise consumer 43 interest over all others, and that its proceedings would be more transparent. But the importance 48 of support from third parties has grown. Whilst members of the public were not able to make 3 submissions, they were able to attend hearings which previously would have been held 4 in private Freeman Railtrack has a long-term national agenda.
The second case study 8 looks at the Voice of the Listener and Viewer VLV , a small pressure group depen- 9 dent on member subscriptions for its income. Despite this, VLV has held several confer- 10 ences with well-respected speakers and has been invited to submit responses to 11 government bodies. The company owns the rail infrastructure, including track, signals, bridges and all 2, stations. Whilst privatisation freed Railtrack from the necessity 18 of approaching the Treasury each year to gain funds to keep the trains running for the 19 next twelve months, the rail industry receives a substantial although decreasing level 20 of public subsidy and is therefore accountable to the government.
Privatisation has also 21 increased expectations of the industry, not only from politicians but also from the general 22 public. Whilst Railtrack does not run trains, and its customers are the train operating 23 companies rather than passengers, the infrastructure obviously substantially affects the 24 travelling experience.
The Labour government 31 is also pro-public transport and wishes to operate in partnership with business. With 32 the Strategic Rail Authority emerging under the responsibility of the Department of 33 Transport, Environment and the Regions, Railtrack needs to have a coherent and consis- 34 tent public affairs policy. Whilst 39 the latter have an important role to play in helping you shape strategy and key 40 messages, it is important that the company is seen to lead in contacting politicians 41 and civil servants.
We are moving to a situation where we are retaining an agency 42 on an ad hoc, project basis rather than on a retainer, but we are predominately doing 43 the work ourselves, in-house. Whilst the team has increased in strength and moved 44 from being a mere packhorse to being involved in strategic thinking, there are still 45 only four people in my team. We have to be more cerebral than that. No lobbying is better than 49 bad lobbying.
If you mess it up, it can have a negative effect so that it is harder to make an approach the next time. But 16 the surest way to the hearts and minds of MPs is to break it down to constituency sized chunks. I can then make an indi- 25 vidually targeted package of information for each MP which will contain details of 26 what we are doing in their patch. On average, we have at least one MP visit to a 27 station site each week, where they can don a hard hat, see what work we are doing 28 and get local coverage in the media.
Improvements to station surfaces, better disabled 29 access, more bike racks, repairing the clock tower, they can see what they are getting 30 for the money.
We can analyse where complaints are 33 coming from and what those complaints are, whether it is vibration from trains, 34 noise or vandalism, and match our activities to their agenda. We want to stop the 25, people who write to us complaining from 37 writing to their MP.
You have to be careful not to negotiate through 3 the media, with government ministers feeling like they have been ambushed by 4 reading something in the media which they should have heard directly from you. A close relationship with the Chief Executive 9 and senior directors is essential so that public affairs does not become marginalised.
This is in contrast with 14 VLV, described below. Around people wrote in support of a piece in The Sunday Times calling 23 for an association of listeners, and a public meeting was organised in November We cover both.
It aims to safeguard quality and editorial integrity of broad- 46 cast programmes, and promote wider choice. After his 3 appearance, VLV was invited to submit a response to a consultation on audio-visual 4 material conducted by the European Commission.
There is an 9 incredible complexity of issues that we are dealing with. She was concerned that the legislation could 18 lead to the prevention of video recording of programmes. Current objectives include safeguarding Channel 4 as a public corporation. With this small 35 workforce, VLV runs between seven and ten conferences each year, produces a 36 newsletter and various publications, responds to consultations by national and European 37 bodies, and has given evidence to three Select Committees.
The association submitted 38 a response to the panel reviewing the future of BBC funding, recommending the raising 39 of the licence fee. Despite this, prices for attendance 43 are kept to a minimum to ensure accessibility for all.
Funding comes mainly from 44 subscriptions and donations. We threat- ened a judicial review and they backed off. In the end the 2 BBC got to keep 80 per cent of the money, which they used to fund development 3 of their digital channels.
Societies have developed various kinds of social 27 rules, such as legal rules, or even the rules of etiquette, which act as a framework or 28 guide to behaviour. Moral rules are sometimes regarded as just another set of social 29 rules, but societies are structured around moral rules in a peculiarly fundamental way.
Most notably there can be clashes between moral rules 32 and legal rules. Nevertheless 36 it is the case that, in all societies, a great majority of people accept that they should 37 adhere to certain fundamental moral rules. Breaking these rules will meet with sanc- 38 tions of various kinds, from disapproval and ostracism to, in certain cases, legal penal- 39 ties.
Moral rules help to structure social relations, and many of the decisions that 40 individuals and businesses make must take account of them. Corporate social responsibility involves the 43 idea of business being proactive in its relationship with a range of social actors and 44 doing more than just trying to avoid breaking moral rules. A key example of corpor- 45 ate social responsibility in practice is corporate community involvement see Chapter 46 This is certainly not 3 the case.
The next section will relate these ethical theories to debates surrounding whether 8 or not social responsibility is desirable at all. Non-cognitivism is the term used to describe the belief that morality 20 is subjective or culturally relative, that is, in regard to moral right and wrong there are 21 only beliefs, attitudes and opinions. From the consequentionalist perspective we look at the results 30 of actions in order to make a moral judgement about those actions.
The classic formulation of this position is that of the 40 English philosopher Jeremy Bentham — Happiness is the only thing desirable as an end in itself and all other things 42 are only desirable as a means to the end of happiness. For Bentham, therefore, actions 43 are right to the extent that they maximise happiness or, at least, minimise unhappiness.
So, for example, if a company was saved from bankruptcy because its 13 image and reputation were enhanced by lies told by company representatives to jour- 14 nalists, this may well be seen as a permissible act.
From a utilitarian point of view the 15 welfare of those human beings whose jobs had been saved is weighed against the 16 breaking of trust with other human beings. This perspective is generally referred to 23 as deontological, from the Greek word for duty deon , and is a doctrine that is primarily 24 associated with the German philosopher Immanuel Kant — Kant argues that 25 ethics is grounded in notions of duty and it follows from this that some actions are 26 morally obligatory regardless of their consequences.
Act in such a way that you always treat 33 humanity. The 38 second formulation centres ethics on the relationship between human beings. Kant 47 actually insisted that if a murderer were to ask you the whereabouts of their intended 48 victim you had a duty to tell them and not break the precept regarding lying. In both positions there is a 4 status common to all human beings which affords them protection from abuse by others. In requiring justice of governments, the natural law 15 conferred rights on the governed.
The generally agreed list was life, liberty and, some- 16 times, property. They were rights which governments could neither grant nor take away, 18 people possessed them by virtue of being human.
That is, it was no longer deemed to be a contract between govern- 22 ments and people, but rather between the people themselves to set up and empower a 23 government.
As Chryssides and Kaler 35 note: 36 37 So the aim of serving the common good has to be tempered by the admission of 38 rights and responsibilities.
Likewise rights and duties cannot generally be examined 39 separately and neither can they be pursued regardless of any consideration of 40 collective welfare. Pearson , in embracing the concept of intersubjec- 49 tivism, offers an argument which places public relations at the centre of efforts to con- struct a business ethic.
According to this view all truths, including moral truths, emerge out of a 3 process of negotiation and debate. There are no objective standards of right and wrong 4 only subjective views on what constitutes right and wrong.
Moral rules are intersubjective 5 in that they are arrived at through agreement between different subjective viewpoints. There is an additional problem in that a process of dialogue has to stop some- 20 where and a resolution to which everyone agrees might not be possible.
A decision 21 might have to made which is only in the interests of the majority and it is hard to see 22 how one could prevent this from collapsing into utilitarianism, where you rely on 23 maximising happiness for the greatest possible number. Based on that foundational 26 assumption all parties can then arrive at a mutually satisfactory outcome through 27 dialogue.
However, it is clear that 30 these assumptions do not emerge out of the process of symmetrical dialogue, they are 31 a prerequisite for it. Pearson then, relies on older established ethical doctrines to guar- 32 antee his model. In practice 44 the attitude of most companies to corporate social responsibility will occupy a position 45 somewhere between the two.
Ethical doctrines play a role in justifying both perspec- 46 tives. Friedman 7 insists that it is wrong to suggest that corporations can have social responsibilities, 8 9 since, for him, only individuals can have responsibilities. He writes: 11 12 In a free-enterprise, private-property system, a corporate executive is an employee 13 of the owners of the business. He has direct responsibility to his employers.
That 14 responsibility is to conduct the business in accordance with their desires, which 15 generally will be to make as much money as possible while conforming to the basic 16 rules of the society, both those embodied in law and those embodied in ethical custom.
He does 26 not elaborate on what the rules based on ethical custom are, but he does give some 27 indication as to what the second order rules might involve. If it was, Friedman would have no objection to it. But 35 is actively seeking to do good easily distinguishable from the mere avoidance of doing 36 evil?
The owners of businesses, the shareholders, are the only people to whom 6 managers are accountable and the only responsibility managers have is to act in their 7 interests. While other interests may be taken into account,4 Friedman is largely correct in 11 stating that the managers of a corporation must ultimately serve the interests of the 12 shareholders.
It is 23 the company as a corporate entity which owns the assets of the business. They 25 in effect own the company rather than its assets. Consequently, the right of the 26 company, acting through its employees, to utilize those assets is legally unaffected 27 by changes in shareholding.
These values involve a combination of egoism 34 and utilitarianism, a view that claims that if everyone pursues their own self-interest 35 within a free market, the result is the greatest happiness, or economic well-being, for 36 the greatest number of actors within that market. This argument, that only the interests 37 of shareholders are important, is not universally accepted. There is, in fact, an argu- 38 ment that the managers should act as the agents of all groups associated with the corpo- 39 ration and not just the shareholders.
These groups might include shareholders, employees, 47 customers, suppliers, the local community and even broader society. This model requires the corporation to take account of its social responsibilities.
Corporate policy must consider all of its stakeholders. They go on to 4 argue that all affected groups should actually have a role in determining company 5 policy. It is 28 through the corporation that each stakeholder group makes itself better off through 29 voluntary exchanges. From the stakeholder perspective corporate 32 social responsibility is not an optional extra. First, however, it is important to 42 locate the role of public relations within the practice of social responsibility.
When 43 business organisations decide to involve themselves in local communities they usually 44 attempt to explain why they are doing what they are doing. The message is that nuclear power. Pimlot , the historian of public relations in the USA, public relations 18 is intricately connected with what he views as democratic ideals. It almost goes without saying 33 that there is bound to be a tension between this conception of public relations serving 34 the interests of society and the requirement that it serves the interests of the corpora- 35 tion.
This tension between responsibility to the needs of the company and responsibil- 36 ity to the needs of society is sometimes exposed by the language used in corporate 37 documents that attempt to explain the practice of corporate social responsibility. From this 22 perspective a corporate social responsibility programme needs to demonstrate that it is 23 motivated by duty, and not self-interest enlightened or any other kind.
There is another reason for the appeal to different ethical doctrines and this 46 involves the recognition that corporate discourse has many different audiences. The 47 next section will discuss the case of Telewest Communications plc which is an example 48 of a corporate donor justifying its social responsibility in different ways, to different 49 audiences.
Or they could try to realise the idea that 43 public relations can act in the public interest Grunig , Cutlip et al. To achieve the latter a stakeholder 46 model is a prerequisite. This model argues that a corporation should be run in the inter- 47 ests of all the groups which have a stake in it.
I would agree but would add 23 that there also seems to be a fundamental misunderstanding of what motivates such religious 24 groups who act in the way they do because certain kinds of behaviour, toward employees 25 and society, are prescribed in the Bible. It is certainly the case that economics and utilitarian ethical theory 29 have a long historical connection and there is a degree of conceptual and terminological 30 overlap. There was very little expla- 37 nation of the kinds of cable services which Telewest would be supplying, but there was a great deal of information about the impact on the environment of installing cable and the 38 general possibilities of the cable technology for business, education and so on.
This is one of the 18 19 20 P reasons why the two are repeatedly used as interchangeable terms, especially by journalists. According to Grunig and Hunt over 50 per cent of practitioners operate 30 the public information model of PR, where the dissemination of information is the main 31 purpose.
Whilst this model emphasises honesty, it still does not really address the opin- 32 ions of stakeholder groups. Wragg argues in Bland et al. There is even a whole book devoted simply to how to write a press release 29 Bartrum A variety of methods of contact are put forward. Haywood — provides a useful set of 32 checklists. Advice is also offered on selectivity in targeting.
On 40 the other hand, the greater number of titles has led to the development of smaller, niche 41 outlets, so practitioners have to be more aware of the exact nature of the audience they 42 are trying to reach. Haywood stresses that it is 46 important to understand how the media work, yet much of his advice concerns the print 47 and broadcast media.
Indeed, standard advice on writing media releases double spaced 48 lines, wide margins is a descendant of the days when journalists received hard copy 49 through the post, marked it up and sent it off to typesetters for it to be made up to be printed. But is the 11 revolution in media relations as far reaching as that in information technology? The 12 unsurprising fact is that the impact of new technology varies according to individual 13 journalists, the media they work in and the industry sector.
Three hundred questionnaires were sent out to jour- 21 nalists working in national and regional press, both daily and Sunday titles, national 22 and regional radio and specialist IT publications.
A response rate of 26 per cent was 23 achieved, although this was overwhelmingly from the regional media. Only 8 per cent 24 of journalists from national media replied, 18 per cent from IT publications, and 28 25 per cent from regional media. Only 12 per cent of questionnaires sent by email were responded to, as against 29 29 per cent sent by fax and 35 per cent sent by mail.
Tables Nearly a quarter receive over releases, so the amount of time 36 available to read this information is strictly limited. But the majority 43 of journalists apart from one wag who replied that he would prefer not to be contacted 44 by any of these methods at all seem to prefer it that way. It has to be said that although 45 more journalists would prefer to receive information by email than do at present, 75 46 per cent of those who expressed this preference work for IT publications, where the 47 level of familiarity and expertise with new technology would be expected to be higher.
PR Newswire Europe has over , entries, which are updated 30 weekly for the most important titles, less frequently for more specialist contacts. Media Information has set up Prnet, which has 5, 33 registered journalists who specify what subjects they are interested in. PiMs can create customised lists of contacts, incorporating fax and 37 email numbers as preferred Cowlett c. Those who send releases in this 41 way should type the release directly into the email, or save it as a text document in 42 Word and attach it.
Use of the subject line for a headline and provision of contact 43 information should be considered in the same way as conventional releases. Freelance 44 journalists also have the added cost of having to pay for the length of time they are 45 online, and do not wish to receive unsolicited material.
Table Several quoted local councils, police 21 and health authorities, housing associations and utilities as providing good service. Look for a human 24 angle. Think about people. If the story is good it will sell itself, but bad PR can kill a good 34 story.
However, there is more information around 44 and more places to pick it up from, deadlines are tighter, and where new technology has 45 come into its own is with a greater amount of background research being carried out 46 online rather than through personal contact. Ideas which are most welcome are those 6 with a local slant but national relevance, preferably featuring someone the listeners 7 know, with something entertaining and informative. Using specialist broadcast facili- 8 ties, enabling an interviewee to give several interviews down the line to several local 9 stations from a central point, can mean reaching millions of listeners.
This medium is set to increase in importance 12 with the advent of digital radio. The development of the internet is discussed in detail 18 in Chapter 18, but also affects many of the other areas discussed in Part III.
The use of 19 the internet in issues management and lobbying has already been covered in Chapter 8. With ructions in the 30 boardroom in late , the company found it could no longer rely on its past successes. Clothes were denounced as dowdy by the fashion press. However, specula- 36 tion about possible takeovers still had to be quelled.
On the fashion side, the introduction of the Autograph designer 40 range is going some way towards improving the fashion ranges. The temptation is to send it to everyone, on the basis that the more people that get it the better, but that can be the worst thing. If you are constantly sending the wrong thing you are 2 going to alienate them, so that by the time you do have something that might interest 3 them, they will probably throw it in the bin.
The food area is very clear cut. Some 4 write about recipes, some write about products. Opening students' eyes to the positive and negative events that occur across the globe every day, authors Jon Pevehouse and Joshua Goldstein offer a strong foundation in current global affairs, with insight into topics like foreign assistance in the developing world, the changing nature of war, and global poverty levels.
Through human scale stories that touch on broader themes such as war and peace, humans and their environment, poverty and development, and more, REVEL for International Relations provides students with relatable material to understand international relations. Informed by extensive research on how people read, think, and learn, REVEL is an interactive learning environment that enables students to read, practice, and study in one continuous experience - for less than the cost of a traditional textbook.
In addition to this access code, you will need a course invite link, provided by your instructor, to register for and use Revel. The book also provides the topics of the essays asked in each of these XAT exam. The book also contains 5 Mock tests designed exactly as per the latest pattern of XAT.
Each Mock Test has 2 parts as per the new format. The detailed solution to each test is provided at the end of the book. The book also contains the list of essays asked in the last 15 years of XAT and a list of essays for practice. Author : Laura D. All these elements set the series visually apart, far distant from our realities. And yet, after each episode and season, viewers were left pondering about the wars, political games, diplomacy, and human rights violations that somehow resonated with the world today.
Laura D. How does Game of Thrones mirror international politics and how may the series provide a useful tool for better understanding the theories, concepts, and thematic issues in international relations? Game of Thrones and the Theories of International Relations connects the prominent international relations theories—realism, liberalism, constructivism, and critical identity theories—to the series, providing examples from various characters whose actions reflect applied scenarios of decision-making and strategizing.
Ambassador Ernest Petri? The role of the United Nations, the EU, strategic actors and the role of foreign policy as a diplomatic instrument are examined. Finally a reflection of the foreign policy concerns of small and new countries, with special attention to Slovenia and legal aspects are offered. Author : Amor, S. The writing of this book was inspired mainly by the fact that, despite Namibia's independence in , Namibian legal practitioners, academics and students lecturing and studying law at the University of Namibia UNAM still do not have a truly Namibian reference book.
Instead, they rely heavily on legal literature from South Africa and other countries. An Introduction to Namibian Law is an attempt to bridge this gap by introducing law academics, lecturers and students to the most important aspects of Namibian law. It explains the origin of the country's law and looks at the various influences over the years. It also contains various extracts in support of legal arguments, in which legal concepts are illustrated and thoroughly explained, as well as sample legal forms.
Full accounts of certain cases are included to give students of Namibian law a depth of understanding of how Namibian law has been applied over the years. A lasting three-year transformation process turned out to be an unpredictable factor for the traditional German and French foreign policy principles within a novel geopolitical environment.
He is currently the editor of the leading professional journal in the field, International Organization. Joshua S. He is an award-winning scholar who has written and spoken widely on war and society, including war's effects on gender, economics, and psychological trauma.
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